Abstract: Ion channels in biological membranes often form spatially localized clusters that exhibit cooperative gating behavior, where the activity of one channel can modulate the opening probability of its neighbors. Understanding such inter-channel interactions is crucial for elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying complex electrochemical signaling and for advancing channel-targeted pharmacology. In this study, we introduce a simplified stochastic model of multi-channel gating that enables systematic analysis of cooperative phenomena under controlled conditions. Two complementary information-theoretic measures, i.e., Shannon entropy and Sample entropy, are applied to simulated multi-channel datasets to quantify the degree and modality of inter-channel cooperativity. The analyzed signals include idealized total current traces and the corresponding dwell-time sequences of channel cluster states. We demonstrate that the dependence of Shannon entropy calculated for the idealized cluster currents on cluster size distinguishes non-cooperative from cooperative dynamics. Similarly, the Sample entropy of dwell-time series is also a potent indicator of inter-channel cooperation. Additionally, this metric provides enhanced sensitivity to temporal regularities in dwell-time data. The observed entropic signatures allow for classification of clusters according to the strength and mode of inter-channel coupling (non-, positively-, and negatively-cooperative). Thus, they extend a general analytical framework for interpreting multi-channel recordings. These findings, based on our simple model of channel cluster, establish entropy-based analysis as a promising approach for probing real collective gating in ion channel systems or simple biomimetic multi-nanopore devices, where some deviations from the idealized approach are expected.

Abstract: Bacillus amyloliquefaciens is an important agricultural microbial resource. This study focuses on the whole genome analysis and functional characterization of B. amyloliquefaciens SH-53, isolated from the Wuliang Mountain National Nature Reserve in Dali, Yunnan. The genomic feature analysis revealed that the genome of SH-53 contains 27 ribosomal RNA operons, 4,078 protein-coding genes, and 250 prophage-related genes. Additionally, 12 biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) for secondary metabolites were predicted, of which 7 are novel gene clusters with unknown functions, showing significant differences compared to the known BGCs of conventional biocontrol strains.Functional potential analysis indicates that SH-53 possesses potential antagonistic activity against plant pathogenic bacteria and can colonize the plant rhizosphere through various mechanisms to exert growth-promoting effects. It is capable of synthesizing multiple antibacterial secondary metabolites, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), iron carriers, secreting amylase, and efficiently utilizing sulfur sources. The genome also harbors a complete core gene network related to the induced systemic resistance (ISR) and supporting genes that maintain secondary metabolism homeostasis.In conclusion, B. amyloliquefaciens SH-53 exhibits rich biocontrol-related characteristics and unique secondary metabolic potential, indicating promising prospects for its development as an excellent biocontrol agent.

Abstract: The increased demand for food worldwide has led to the widespread use of synthetic chemical fertilizers. Since the Green Revolution, the use of such chemical fertilizers has been in high demand as a nutrient input in agriculture. The increased application of ferti-lizer to upsurge crop yields is not suitable for the long term and leads to nutrient loss, as well as severe environmental and ecological consequences. Contrasted to conventional fertilizers, nano-fertilizers, which are designed at the 1–100 nm size, provide focused nu-trient delivery, decreased leaching, and improved plant absorption. They accomplish this by greatly increasing crop yields, enhancing fertilizer usage efficiency, and facilitating sustainable farming in the face of obstacles, including resource scarcity, climate change, and a projected 10 billion people by 2050. In comparison to typical NPK fertilizers at equal nutrient rates, nano-fertilizers enhanced crop yields by an average of 20-23% across cere-als, legumes, and horticulture crops, according to studies conducted between 2015 and 2024. In particular, using nano-urea to rice increased grain yield by 28.6% with 44% less nitrogen input, and applying nano-zinc to wheat increased yields by 31.2% and improved grain Zn content by 41%. Through targeted foliar or soil application, nano fertilizers in-crease nutrient use efficiency (NUE) by frequently more than 50% as opposed to 30-50% for conventional fertilizers. Nano fertilizer is prepared based on the encapsulation of plant essential minerals and nutrients with a suitable polymer matrix as a carrier and delivered as nano-sized particles or emulsions to the plants. Natural plant openings like stomata and lenticels in plant parts facilitate the uptake and diffusion, leading to higher NUE. This review provides an overview of current knowledge on the development of advanced nano-based and smart agriculture using nano fertilizer that has improved nutritional management. Furthermore, nano-scale fertilizers and their formulation, and nano-based approaches to increase crop production, along with the different types of fertilizers that are currently available and the mechanism of action of the nano fertilizers, are discussed. Thus, it is expected that a properly designed nano fertilizer could synchronize the release of nutrients in crop plants as and when needed.

Abstract: Quiescence is a reversible, non-proliferative cellular state that enables survival under nutrient limitation while preserving the capacity to resume growth. Rather than representing a passive default, quiescence is an actively regulated program conserved from unicellular eukaryotes to metazoans. This review focuses on the nuclear mechanisms underlying quiescence entry, maintenance, and exit, drawing on mechanistic insights from yeast models while highlighting conserved principles in multicellular systems. Across species, quiescence is characterized by global transcriptional repression, chromatin compaction, and extensive reorganization of nuclear architecture, coordinated by nutrient-sensing pathways centered on TOR/mTOR signaling. We discuss how transcriptional reprogramming is achieved through redistribution of RNA polymerases, dynamic transcription factor activities, and large-scale remodeling of histone modifications, alongside repressive chromatin formation. In parallel, post-transcriptional mechanisms—including intron retention, alternative polyadenylation, and accumulation of non-coding RNAs—fine-tune gene expression while limiting biosynthetic output. We further examine how changes in nuclear organization, such as nucleolar condensation, condensin-mediated chromosome rearrangements, and telomere hyperclusters, support long-term viability and genome stability. Collectively, this review highlights nuclear dynamics as an integrative regulatory layer that links metabolic state to cellular identity, adaptability, and long-term survival, with broad implications for development, stem cell function, and disease.

Abstract: This study investigated how complexes formed by lauric acid (LA) and polyphenols (gallic acid, GA; 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, DOPAC; caffeic acid, CA) with bread-fruit starch affect starch’s digestibility and properties. The digestibility resistance of ternary complexes was not superior to that of binary complexes but remained higher than native starch. Among them, the CA complex (CB) showed the highest RS and the lowest hydrolysis, indicating CA's prominent role in enhancing digestibility resistance. A decreased breakdown value and increased gelatinization temperatures were revealed, indicating inhibited gelatinization. During cooling phase, samples with LA showed viscosity peaks, confirming V-type complex formation, which was absent in polyphe-nol-only samples. R1047/1022 and Rc values were increased in complexes. Ternary complexes exhibited a lower R1047/1022 ratio but a higher Rc than binary complexes, suggesting LA mainly influenced long-range order, while polyphenols affected both short- and long-range order. This may explain the antagonistic effect on digestibility in ternary complexes.

Abstract:

Gastric cancer (GC0 is primarily caused by Helicobacter pylori infection and smoking, with a higher incidence in families with multiple GC cases owing to lifestyle and genetic factors. The use of medications to eradicate H. pylori can reduce the incidence of GC. Furthermore, GC is the fourth most common cancer, affecting one in 11 men (9.1%) and one in 23 women (4.38%). The incidence of GC increases after 50 years of age, particularly among men. However, the reason for difference in incidence rates between both sexes remains unclear. We investigated the incidence of GC in families with hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC). The results showed that the incidence of GC in families with HBOC was 4.2 times higher than that in other families. Furthermore, the incidence of gastric cancer in families with HBOC and other families was 74.57% and 53.67% in men, respectively. Overall, the higher incidence of gastric cancer in men than that in women may be due to the underlying cause of hereditary GC.

Abstract:

Kidney disease, be it acute or chronic, has a complex pathology and is a significant human health problem. Increasing interest has been focused on exploring therapeutic targets that can be used to safeguard kidney function under a variety of detrimental conditions. In this article, we review the protective effects of 5-methoxytryptophan (5-MTP), a tryptophan metabolite, on kidney injury. Published studies indicate that serum 5-MTP is increased in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), suggesting that 5-MTP is a biomarker for CKD and has therapeutic values. Indeed, rodent models of kidney injury induced by folic acid, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO), and ischemia/reperfusion all demonstrate that exogenous 5-MTP exhibits nephroprotective effects. The underlying mechanisms involve anti-oxidative damage via activating antioxidant systems such as Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1, anti-inflammation, anti-fibrosis, and enhanced mitophagy. To further explore the underlying mechanisms and the potential of 5-MTP as a kidney therapeutic compound, future studies need to include more rodent models of kidney injury induced by a variety of insults. Moreover, how to boost endogenous 5-MTP content and its potential synergistic effects with other therapeutic approaches aiming to combat kidney diseases also remain to be explored.

Abstract:

Ground-nesting shorebirds face growing pressure from recreational activities in coastal urban areas. We monitored the breeding success of Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) and Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius) over six consecutive years (2020–2025) at the Promenade of Sablettes, a heavily visited waterfront in Algiers, Algeria. We combined field surveys with multi-sensor remote sensing analysis using Sentinel-1, Sentinel-2, and Dynamic World data to quantify habitat change. A total of 105 nests were recorded across both species. Breeding success reached 70% during the COVID-19 lockdown period (2020–2021), when human visitation dropped sharply. In contrast, complete reproductive failure occurred in 2022 and 2023, coinciding with resumed tourism and unplanned construction activities. Remote sensing revealed that 80–85% of the study area experienced severe habitat degradation between 2020 and 2025, while suitable refuge zones shrank to less than 10% of the total surface. Fledged chicks consistently moved toward a less disturbed vegetated zone, highlighting its functional importance for brood survival. Our results show that human disturbance, rather than intrinsic habitat quality, is the main factor limiting breeding success at this site. When disturbance was reduced during the pandemic, the habitat proved fully functional for both species. These findings suggest that simple management measures such as seasonal access restrictions and symbolic fencing during the April–July breeding period could restore breeding conditions without major habitat engineering. This study provides one of the first integrations of long-term field breeding data with landscape-scale remote sensing to document the effects of the anthropause and subsequent recovery on urban shorebird populations.

Abstract: Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) is a retroviral disease of equids, for which there is no vac-cine particularly adapted to American viral strains. In this work we searched for possible epitope regions for the surface proteins gp90 and gp45, rationally employing the latest available bioinformatics tools that constitute the state of the art in the field. We selected eight regions that contain numerous overlapping epitopes that have a high coverage amongst American viral strains and designed a chimeric envelope protein with those proteins fused in tandem as a novel vaccine candidate. In silico predictors were used to analyze chimeric protein physicochemical and immunogenic properties, as well as its al-lergenicity and toxicity. Protein structure was predicted and validated, and its ability to trigger cytotoxic immune responses was predicted by molecular docking to ELA alleles. The proposed sequence is predicted to be highly immunogenic and sets the base for a novel EAIV vaccine that could be used to protect against several American field strains.

Abstract: Climate change and altered hydrological regimes are restructuring wetland habitats globally, triggering cascading effects on colonial waterbirds. This study investigates how environmental drivers, including thermal anomalies, water level fluctuations, and aqueous surface extent influence the distribution, size, and diversity of waterbird colonies in the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve. We integrated colony census data (2016–2023) with remote sensing-derived habitat metrics, in-situ meteorological and hydrological measurements to model site occupancy dynamics using Generalized Linear Mixed Models. Our results indicate that elevated early spring temperatures and water level variability are the primary determinants of nesting success. Spatial analysis revealed a heterogeneous response to hydrological stress: while the westernmost colony exhibited high site fidelity due to its proximity to persistent aquatic surfaces, the central colonies suffered severe declines or local extirpation during extreme drought periods (2020–2022). A discernible eastward shift in bird assemblages was observed toward zones with superior hydrological connectivity and proximity to anthropogenic hubs, suggesting remarkable behavioral plasticity. We propose prioritizing the investigation of sustainable solutions for lacustrine threshold regulation to maintain critical shallow-water foraging zones. This integrative framework provides essential insights for the long-term conservation of deltaic ecosystems, highlighting the pivotal role of remote sensing.

Abstract: In Candida species, including Candidozyma auris (formerly Candida auris), overexpression of efflux pumps is a well-established mechanism of antifungal resistance. However, accumulating evidence indicates that impaired drug import may also significantly contribute to reduced antifungal susceptibility. Sugar importers, historically viewed solely as hexose transporters (HGTs), are now emerging as potential indirect modulators of antifungal uptake. Here, we performed a comprehensive inventory and functional analysis of the HGT family in C. auris to assess its contribution to antifungal import. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that C. auris HGTs are more closely related to those of Candida albicans (C. albicans) than Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae). All HGT genes showed basal expression, with several significantly downregulated upon fluconazole (FLC) exposure. To establish functional relevance, we generated a mini-library of HGT deletion mutants. Notably, the Δhgt13 strain exhibited markedly increased FLC resistance, concomitant with reduced intracellular FLC accumulation and decreased membrane permeability. Consistently, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations demonstrated strong and stable interactions between FLC and Hgt13p. Together, these findings implicate Hgt13p as a key determinant of FLC import and membrane permeability, revealing reduced FLC import could also contribute to antifungal resistance in C. auris.

Abstract:

Damage to the chorda tympani (CT) nerve through trauma or experimental nerve axotomy results in the degeneration of anterior taste buds and taste loss. Our previous work demonstrated that Il1r signaling is required for taste bud regeneration and the recovery of taste function. However, the effects of experimental axotomy on immune responses in the absence of Il1r signaling remain unclear. To test this, we performed unilateral CT sectioning in Il1r KO or wild-type mice as previously described. We found that CD45+ immune cells, CD68+ and CD206+ M2-like macrophages are significantly increased near anterior taste buds at day two post-injury in wild-type but not Il1r KO mice. By day 5, these macrophage responses were slightly elevated in wild-type mice but remained at baseline levels in KO mice, indicating that immune responses to injury were suppressed rather than delayed in the absence of Il1r signaling. However, taste buds degenerated at similar time points in both strains. These results suggest that delayed taste bud degeneration in Il1r KO mice is not the primary reason for later functional deficits, though suppressed immune response may have other consequences in the injured peripheral taste system.

Abstract: Multi-agent AI systems, where multiple specialized agents collaborate, are emerging as a powerful approach in biomedicine to tackle complex analytical and clinical tasks that exceed the scope of any single model. Background: This review outlines how orchestrating large language model (LLM) based agents can improve performance and reliability in biomedical data analysis. It surveys new frameworks that coordinate agent teams and highlights state-of-the-art applications in domains such as drug discovery, clinical trial matching, and decision support, where early multi-agent prototypes have achieved higher accuracy or more robust results compared to lone LLMs. Methods: We synthesize findings from recent studies and architectures, categorizing applications and examining how agents divide labor, use tools, and cross-verify each other’s outputs. Results: The review finds that multi-agent strategies yield notable advantages – for example, reducing errors via inter-agent checking and providing more explainable reasoning through transparent dialogues. We also catalog available orchestration platforms and benchmarks driving this field. Conclusions: While multi-agent AI shows promise in augmenting biomedical research and healthcare (by integrating diverse knowledge sources and simulating collaborative problem-solving), ensuring its reliable and ethical deployment will require addressing challenges in verification, scalability, continual learning, and safety. The paper concludes that with careful design and rigorous evaluation, AI agent teams could significantly enhance biomedical intelligence without replacing human experts.

Abstract: (1) Background: We developed a novel technology that regulates human locomotion using transcutaneous electrical spinal cord stimulation to activate spinal locomotor networks and posterior root stimulation to activate leg flexor and extensor motor pools during swing and stance phases, respectively. This technology effectively restores walking in post-stroke individuals while forward propulsion in the stance phase and foot dorsiflexion in the swing phase are insufficient. In this study the effectiveness of regulating the stance and swing phases while walking healthy volunteers on the treadmill with transcutaneous electrical stimulation of the posterior roots, leg muscles, and their combined effects has been examined. (2) Methods: We analyzed the kinematic characteristics of stepping movements in healthy participants with spinal stimulation of the posterior roots and flexor/extensor leg muscles. (3) Results: Our findings clearly show that posterior root stimulation at T12 combined with the tibialis anterior muscle stimulation during the swing phase effectively regulates foot dorsiflexion, whereas posterior root stimulation at L2 combined with the hamstrings and medial gastrocnemius stimulation during the stance phase effectively regulates forward propulsion. (4) Conclusions: Combined stimulation in the stance and swing phases within same gait cycle resulted in the most coordinated stepping, and effective control of forward propulsion and foot dorsiflexion.

Abstract:

Background: There is a critical need for effective therapeutics for Alzheimer’s disease. However, the majority of previous clinical trials have pre-determined a single treatment modality, such as a drug candidate or therapeutic procedure, which may be unrelated to the primary drivers of the neurodegenerative process. Therefore, a personalized, precision medicine approach, with increased data set size to include the potential contributors to cognitive decline for each patient, and treatment of the identified potential contributors, has emerged as a potentially more effective strategy. Recent proof-of-concept trials have provided clinical data that support this approach. Objective: To determine whether a precision medicine approach to Alzheimer’s disease at the mild cognitive impairment or early dementia stage is effective in a randomized controlled clinical trial. Methods: Seventy-three patients with mild cognitive impairment or early dementia, with Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) scores of 18 or higher, were evaluated for markers of inflammation, chronic infection, dysbiosis, immune dysfunction, insulin resistance, protein glycation, vascular disease, nocturnal hypoxemia, hormone insufficiency or dysregulation, nutrient deficiency, toxin or toxicant exposure, and other biochemical parameters associated with cognitive decline. Genetic and epigenetic evaluations were included, as well as Alzheimer’s-associated biomarkers. Brain magnetic resonance imaging with volumetrics was performed at baseline and study conclusion. Participants were randomly assigned to either a personalized, precision medicine protocol or standard of care treatment. Cognition and clinical symptoms were assessed at 0, 3, 6, and 9 months. Results: Relative to the standard of care protocol, statistically significant incremental effects of the precision medicine protocol were observed for broad neurocognitive functioning, composite memory (verbal plus visual), executive function, processing speed, cognitive symptom severity, and Alzheimer’s disease symptom severity. Furthermore, overall health was enhanced, with improvements in blood pressure, body mass index, glycemic index, lipid profiles, and methylation status. The treatment effect size for overall cognitive function was calculated to be greater than previously published clinical trials, seven times the effect size of the lecanemab trial and four times the effect size of the donanemab trial. Conclusion: A personalized, precision medicine approach represents an effective treatment for patients with mild cognitive impairment or early-stage dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease. In most cases, this treatment leads to cognitive improvement rather than simply retarding decline, and it does so without significant negative side effects such as brain edema, microhemorrhage, or atrophy.

Abstract:

Background/Objectives: Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is an emerging opportunistic pathogen associated with severe infections, particularly in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Its intrinsic multidrug resistance and ability to form biofilms significantly complicate treatment. While biofilm growth is widely linked to antimicrobial tolerance, the relationship between biofilm-forming capacity and planktonic antibiotic resistance in S. maltophilia remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the association between antibiotic resistance profiles and biofilm formation in clinical isolates from CF and non-CF patients. Methods: A total of 86 clinical S. maltophilia isolates (40 from CF airways and 46 from non-CF patients) were analyzed. Antibiotic susceptibility to seven agents was assessed by disk diffusion, with results interpreted according to EUCAST and CLSI criteria. Multidrug resistance phenotypes were defined using standard criteria. Biofilm formation was quantified after 24 h using a crystal violet microtiter plate assay and categorized into five levels of production. Statistical analyses were performed to compare biofilm formation across resistance profiles and clinical origins and to assess correlations between biofilm biomass and multidrug resistance. Results: Overall, high resistance rates were observed, particularly to meropenem (87.2%), ciprofloxacin (80.2%), and rifampicin (72.1%). CF isolates showed significantly higher resistance to piperacillin/tazobactam and a higher prevalence of multidrug resistance. Biofilm production was detected in 94.2% of isolates, with strong and powerful biofilm producers predominating. However, isolates from CF patients formed significantly less biofilm than those from non-CF patients. Notably, resistance to piperacillin/tazobactam and meropenem was associated with significantly reduced biofilm formation, as reflected in both median biomass and the proportion of high biofilm producers. Across the entire collection, the number of antibiotic resistances displayed by an isolate was negatively correlated with biofilm biomass. These trends were maintained after stratification by clinical origin, although some comparisons did not reach statistical significance. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate an unexpected inverse relationship between planktonic antibiotic resistance and biofilm-forming efficiency in S. maltophilia. Enhanced biofilm production may represent an alternative persistence strategy in more antibiotic-susceptible strains, with important implications for infection management and therapeutic failure.

Abstract:

A reliable and reproducible method for the isolation, culture, and identification of an osteoblast cell line from crucian carp (Carassius auratus) was established in this study using vertebral bone tissue from Chongming crucian carp, a locally important aquaculture strain from the lower Yangtze River region. Osteoblast cells were isolated using a tissue explant culture method, and optimal in vitro culture conditions were systematically evaluated. The established osteoblast cell line, designated Chongming Carassius auratus osteoblast cells (COBC), was characterized through chromosomal karyotype analysis, osteocalcin enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and osteogenesis-related gene expression analysis. Additionally, cellular responses to environmental stress were assessed. The results showed that COBC exhibited optimal proliferation in L-15 medium supplemented with 20% fetal bovine serum at 28 ℃ under 5% CO₂. Alkaline phosphatase staining, Alizarin Red staining, and von Kossa staining all yielded positive results, thereby confirming that the isolated cells possessed typical and stable osteoblastic properties, with the osteocalcin content of 36,884 ng/L. Quantitative PCR analysis revealed that osteogenic marker genes, including runx2a and runx2b, were expressed at significantly higher levels in COBCs than in muscle tissue. Under hypoxia-reoxygenation stress, COBC exhibited enhanced apoptotic responses, marked alterations in related gene expression, and modulation of antioxidant enzyme activities, suggesting a certain degree of adaptive capacity to oxygen fluctuations. This study provides the first systematic description of the establishment and biological characterization of COBC, as well as its responses to hypoxic stress. These findings offer a valuable in vitro cell model and technical support for studies on fish bone tissue biology and the assessment of environmental stress effects.

Abstract: In 2015 a polymorphic variant of Bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein (BPI) Fold containing Family B Member 4 (BPIFB4) was genetically associated with longevity. Following on from this intriguing observation, a literature has developed that suggests that this poorly characterised secreted protein, plays a pleiotropic role in maintaining human health and extending lifespan. In this article we briefly review what is known about BPIFB4 and discuss how its sites of expression may impact on these proposed functions.

Abstract: Engineered microbes are emerging as a new class of living immunotherapeutics capable of sensing, interpreting, and actively reshaping host immune systems. Unlike conventional biologics or cell therapies with fixed mechanisms of action, engineered microbial platforms operate as dynamic systems that integrate environmental, metabolic, and immunological cues, process these inputs through programmable biological circuits, and execute context-dependent immune modulation with spatial and temporal precision. This review presents an immune-first framework that conceptualizes engineered microbes as distributed immune-computational systems defined by coordinated sensing, signal processing, memory, and effector functions embedded within host immune networks. Organizing the field around immune logic rather than microbial taxonomy or disease category, we examine how engineered microbes detect tissue-specific and immune-state signals, translate these inputs through synthetic processing modules, and generate immune outputs that activate, suppress, educate, or reprogram immunity across cancer, autoimmunity, and infectious disease. We further define immune safety architecture as a core design principle governing inflammatory control, tolerance preservation, adaptive immunity, and therapeutic termination, and discuss the translational and regulatory implications of immune-state–resolved clinical evaluation. Together, this framework positions engineered microbes as programmable immune systems and establishes a unifying conceptual foundation for their development as next-generation living immunotherapies.

Abstract: We study a class of hybrid dynamical systems that arise from various fields of mathematical sciences. We provide a rigorous analytical framework for the con- struction of the model, including explicit solutions within orthants, analytical determination of switching times, and the derivation of a boundary-to-boundary return map governing the global dynamics.This work presents a systematic ana- lytical study of bifurcation phenomena arising in low- and moderate-dimensional dynamical systems with applications to biological regulation and switching pro- cesses. Starting from a general nonlinear system depending on a control pa- rameter, we develop a rigorous Taylor expansion framework that enables the precise identification of non-hyperbolic equilibria and the derivation of reduced normal forms. Particular attention is given to saddle-node, transcritical, and Hopf bifurcations, with explicit genericity conditions formulated in terms of higher-order derivatives. These conditions guarantee structural stability and codimension-one unfoldings, allowing biologically meaningful parameter inter- pretations.